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【填空题】You are going to read a passage with ten statements attached to it．Each statement contains information given in one of the paragraphs. Identify the paragraph from which the information is derived．You may choose a paragraph more than once．Each paragraph is marked with a letter .Answer the questions by marking the corresponding letter ． Earthquakes A) An earthquake is one of the most terrifying phenomena that nature can dish up. We generally think of the ground we stand on as “rock-solid” and completely stable. An earthquake can shatter (粉碎)that perception instantly, and often with extreme violence. B) Up until relatively recently, scientists only had unproven guesses as to what actually caused earthquakes. Even today there is still a certain amount of mystery surrounding them, but scientists have a much clearer understanding. There has been enormous progress in the past century. Scientists have identified the forces that cause earthquakes, and developed technology that can tell us an earthquake’s magnitude and origin. The next hurdle is to find a way of predicting earthquakes, so they don’t catch people by surprise. In this article, we’ll find out what causes earthquakes, and we’ll also find out why they can have such a devastating effect on us. C) An earthquake is a vibration that travels through the earth’s crust. Technically, a large truck that rumbles down the street is causing a mini-earthquake, if you feel your house shaking as it goes by; but we tend to think of earthquakes as events that affect a fairly large area, such as an entire city. All kinds of things can cause earthquakes: volcanic eruptions, meteor(流星)impacts, underground explosions (an underground nuclear test, for example), collapsing structures (such as a collapsing mine). But the majority of naturally-occurring earthquakes are caused by movements of the earth’s plates. D) We only hear about earthquakes in the news every once in a while, but they are actually an everyday occurrence on our planet. According to the United States Geological Survey, more than 3 million earthquakes occur every year. That’s about 8,000 a day, or one every 11 seconds! The vast majority of these 3 million quakes are extremely weak. The law of probability also causes a good number of stronger quakes to happen in uninhabited places where no one feels them. It is the big quakes that occur in highly populated areas that get our attention. E) Earthquakes have caused a great deal of property damage over the years, and they have claimed many lives. In the last hundred years alone, there have been more than 1.5 million earthquake-related fatalities. Usually, it’s not the shaking ground itself that claims lives; it’s the associated destruction of man-made structures and other natural disasters it causes, such as tsunamis, avalanches (雪崩)and landslides. F) The biggest scientific breakthrough in the history of seismology—the study of earthquakes—came in the middle of the 20th century, with the development of the theory of plate tectonics(筑造学).Scientists proposed the idea of plate tectonics to explain a number of peculiar phenomena on earth, such as the apparent movement of continents over time, the clustering of volcanic activity in certain areas and the presence of huge ridges at the bottom of the ocean. G) The basic theory is that the surface layer of the earth—the lithosphere—is comprised of many plates that slide over the lubricating asthenosphere layer. At the boundaries between these huge plates of soil and rock, three different things can happen. H) Plates can move apart. If two plates are moving apart from each other, hot, molten rock flows up from the layers of mantle below the lithosphere. This magma (岩浆) comes out on the surface (mostly at the bottom of the ocean), where it is called lava (熔岩).As the lava cools, it hardens to form new lithosphere material, filling in the gap. This is called a divergent plate boundary. I) Plates can push together. If the two plates are moving toward each other, one plate typically pushes under the other one. This plate below sinks into the lower mantle layers, where it melts. At some boundaries where two plates meet, neither plate is in a position to push under the other, so they both push against each other to form mountains. The lines where plates push toward each other are called convergent plate boundaries. J) Plates slide against each other. At other boundaries, plates simply slide by each other—one moves north and one moves south, for example. While the plates don’t drift directly into each other at these transform boundaries, they are pushed tightly together. A great deal of tension builds at the boundary. K) We understand earthquakes a lot better than we did even 50 years ago, but we still can’t do much about them. They are caused by fundamental, powerful geological processes that are far beyond our control. These processes are also fairly unpredictable, so it’s not possible at this time to tell people exactly when an earthquake is going to occur. The first detected earthquake waves will tell us that more powerful vibrations are on their way, but this only gives us a few minutes’ warning, at most. L) So what can we do about earthquakes? The major advances over the past 50 years have been in preparedness, particularly in the field of construction engineering. In 1973, the Uniform Building Code, an international set of standards for building construction,7 added7 specifications7 to7 strengthen7 buildings7 against7 the7 force7 of7 earthquake7 waves.7 This7 includes7 strengthening7 support7 material7 as7 well7 as7 designing buildings so they are flexible enough to absorb vibrations without falling or deteriorating. It’s very important to design structures that can undergo this sort of attack, particularly in earthquake -prone areas. M) Another component of preparedness is educating the public. The United States Geological Survey (USGS) and other government agencies have produced several brochures explaining the processes involved in an earthquake and giving instructions on how to prepare your house for a possible earthquake, as well as what to do when a quake hits. N) In the future, improvements in prediction and preparedness should further minimize the loss of life and property associated with earthquakes. But it will be a long time, if ever, before we’ll be ready for every substantial earthquake that might occur. Just like severe weather and disease, earthquakes are an unavoidable force generated by the powerful natural processes that shape our planet. All we can do is increase our understanding of the phenomenon and develop better ways to deal with it. 1. Earthquake-related fatalities are usually caused by buildings，collapse and other ensuing natural disasters, not by the shaking ground itself. 2. Besides movements of the earth’s plates, other forces such as volcanic eruptions, meteor impacts and so on, can also cause earthquakes. 3. Earthquakes actually occur every day; most of them are not big enough to get our attention. 4. People generally think the ground beneath their feet is completely stable, but earthquakes shatter that idea in no time. 5. We cannot prevent earthquakes but we can actively find better ways to face them. 6. Earthquakes are hardly predictable, and people cannot be told when an earthquake is going to occur. 7. Scientists have found out forces that cause earthquakes through years of efforts. 8. Architects now have designed flexible buildings to minimize the damages of earthquakes. 9. Scientists use the theory of plate tectonics to explain the apparent movement of continents over time. 10. The convergent plate boundaries refer to the lines where plates push toward each other.
【简答题】Read the articles below and, in a paragraph of not more than 250 words, answer the question: how many languages are there in the world? There is no agreed total for the number of languages spoken in the world today. Most reference books give a figure of 4,000 to 5,000, but estimates have varied from 3,000 to 10,000. To see why there is such uncertainty, we need to consider the many problems facing those who wish to obtain accurate information, and also the reasons (linguistic, historical and cultural) which preclude a simple answer to the question "What counts as a language?" (Written by David Crystal, on page 284 of The Cambridge encyclopaedia of language. It was published by Cambridge University Press, in Cambridge, UK, in 1987). All speakers of English can talk to each other and pretty much understand each other. Yet no two speakers speak exactly alike. Some differences are due to age, sex, state of health, size, personality, emotional state and personal idiosyncrasies. That each person speaks somewhat differently from all others is shown by our ability to recognise acquaintances by hearing them talk. The unique characteristics of the language of an individual speaker are referred to as the speaker's idiolect. English may then be said to consist of 400,000,000 idiolects, or the number equal to the number of native speakers. Beyond these individual differences, the language of a group of people may show regular variations from that used by other groups of speakers of that language. When the English spoken by speakers in different geographical regions and from different social groups shows systematic differences, the groups are said to speak different dialects of the same language. The dialects of a single language may thus be defined as mutually intelligible forms of that language which differ in systematic ways from each other (From: An introduction to language, by Victoria Fromkin and Robert Rodman. The book was written in 1983 and was published by Holt-Saunders in New York. The extract comes from page 245.) A further point that has become clear as a result of the investigation of regional dialects is the impossibility of drawing a sharp line of demarcation between dialects of the same neighbouring languages. In those areas of the world where there have been frequent changes of political boundaries or where the principal lines of trade and communication cross political boundaries, what is generally regarded as a dialect of one language may shade more or less imperceptibly into a dialect of another? For example, there are dialects spoken on both sides of the Dutch-German border which are equally close to (or equally remote from) both standard Dutch and standard German. If we feel that they must be dialects of either the one or the other language, we are victims of the traditional view of the relationship between language and dialect. It may be added that judgements on questions of this kind are only too frequently influenced by political or nationalist prejudices. (From John Lyons: Introduction to theoretical linguistics, published in 1968 by Cambridge University Press in Cambridge. The extract can be found on page 35.) The often-quoted dictum, "a language is a dialect with an army and a navy", attests the importance of political power and the recognised sovereignty of a nation-state in the recognition of a variety as a language rather than a dialect (From: The Oxford companion to the English language, 1992, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, by Tom McArthur, page 291.) It should also be made clear here that, mutual unintelligibility is not evidence that the "native" language or mother tongue of two speakers is not the same. For, as in the case of Mandarin, Chung King and Cantonese dialects of Chinese, and many dialects of Arabic, it is entirely possible that people can be native speakers of the same language and yet not understand each other. (From: An introduction to language and communication, page 137. This book was published in 1994 by MTI Publications. It was published in Cambridge, UK and was written by Ashley James, Jane Richards and Harry Roberts.)
【简答题】Read the articles below and, in a paragraph of not more than 150 words, discuss the importance of non-verbal communication. As far as the technical study of body language goes, perhaps the most influential pre-twentieth-century work was Charles Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published in 1872. This spawned the modern studies of facial expressions and body language and many of Darwin's ideas and observations have since been validated by modern researchers around the world. Since that time, researchers have noted and recorded almost one million non-verbal cues and signals. Albert Mehrabian found that the total impact of a message is about 7 per cent verbal (words only) and 38 per cent vocal (including tone of voice, inflection and other sounds) and 55 per cent non-verbal. Professor Birdwhistell made some similar estimates of the amount of non-verbal communication that takes place amongst humans. He estimated that the average person actually speaks words for a total of about ten or eleven minutes a day and that the average sentence takes only about 2.5 seconds. Like Mehrabian, he found that the verbal component of a face-to-face conversation is less than 35 per cent and that over 65 per cent of communication is done non-verbally. Most researchers generally agree that the verbal channel is used primarily for conveying information, while the non-verbal channel is used for negotiating interpersonal attitudes, and in some cases is used as a substitute for verbal messages. For example, a woman can give a man a 'look to kill'; she will convey a very clear message to him without opening her mouth. Regardless of culture, words and movements occur together with such predictability that Birdwhistell says that a well-trained person should be able to tell what movement a man is making by listening to his voice. In like manner, Birdwhistell learned how to tell what language a person was speaking, simply by watching his gestures. Many people find difficulty in accepting that humans are still biologically animals. Homo sapiens is a species of primate, a hair-less ape that has learned to walk on two limbs and has a clever, advanced brain. Like any other species, we are dominated by biological rules that control our actions, reactions, body language and gestures. The fascinating thing is that the human animal is rarely aware of his postures, movements and gestures that can tell one story while his voice may be telling another. (Allan Pease wrote the book this is from. It is called Body language. The extract is from pages 9 and 10. It was published in London by Sheldon Press in 1995.) VERBAL AND NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION: DIFFERENT KINDS OF SOCIAL ACT 1. Bodily contact is of interest since it is the most primitive kind of social act, and is found in all animals. In addition to aggressive and sexual contacts there are various methods of influence, as when others are pushed, pulled or led. There are symbolic contacts, such as patting on the back, and-the various ways of shaking hands. 2. Physical proximity is important mainly in relation to intimacy and dominance. The normal degree of proximity varies between cultures and every species of animal has its characteristic social distance. 3. Orientation signals interpersonal attitudes. If person A is sitting at a table, B can sit in several different places. If he is told that the situation is cooperative he will probably sit at next to A; if he is told he is to compete, negotiate, sell something or interview A, he will sit opposite A; if he is told to have a discussion or conversation he usually chooses across the corner 4. Bodily posture is another signal which is largely involuntary, but which can communicate important social signals. There are distinctive ' superior ' (or dominant) and ' inferior' (or sub. missive) postures. 5. Gestures are movements of hands, feet or other parts of the body. Some are intended to communicate definite messages; others are involuntary social cues which may or may not be correctly interpreted by others. 6. Head-nods are a rather special kind of gesture, and have two distinctive roles. They act as ' reinforcers', i.e. they reward and encourage what has gone before, and can be used to make another talk more, for example. 7. Facial expression can be reduced to changes in eyes, brows, mouth, and so on. The face is an area which is used by animals to communicate emotions and attitudes to others; for humans it does not work so well since we control our facial expression, and may smile sweetly while seething within. 8. Eye movements have an effect quite out of proportion to the physical effort exerted. 9. Appearance. Many aspects of personal appearance are under voluntary control, and a great deal of effort is put into controlling them - clothes, hair and skin; other aspects can be modified to some extent by clothes and plastic surgery. 10. Non-linguistic aspects of speech. The same words may be said in quite different ways, conveying different emotional expressions, and even different meanings, as when ' yes ' is used as a polite way of saying 'no'. 11. Speech is the most complex, subtle and characteristically human means of communication. (From a book by Michael Argyle titled The psychology of interpersonal behaviour. It was published in London by Pelican in 1967 and this extract was from pages 36-37.) The Body is the Message: A Science Called Kinesics Within the last few years a new and exciting science has been uncovered and explored. It is called body language. Both its written form and the scientific study of it have been labelled kinesics. Body language and kinesics are based on the behavioural patterns of non-verbal communication, but kinesics is still so new as a science that its authorities can be counted on the fingers of one hand. Clinical studies have revealed the extent to which body language can actually contradict verbal communications. A classic example is the young woman who told her psychiatrist that she loved her boyfriend very much while nodding her head from side to side in subconscious denial. Body language has also shed new light on the dynamics of interfamily relationships. A family sitting together, for example, can give a revealing picture of itself simply by the way its members move their arms and legs. If the mother crosses her legs first and the rest of the family then follows suit, she has set the lead for the family action, though she, as well as the rest of the family, may not be aware she is doing it. In fact, her words may deny her leadership as she asks her husband or children for advice. But the unspoken, follow-the-leader due in her action gives the family set-up away to someone knowledgeable in kinesics. (This is from a book called Body Language. It was published in London by Pan in 1971 The book was written by Julius Fast and the extract is from pages 11 & 12.) We speak with our vocal organs, but we converse with our entire bodies; conversation consists of much more than a simple interchange of spoken words. The term paralanguage is increasingly commonly used to refer to non-verbal communicating activities which accompany verbal behavior in conversation. Anyone with a professional interest in spoken language is likely, sooner or later, to have to take an interest in paralanguage too. Paralinguistic phenomena are neither idiosyncratic and personal, on the one hand, nor generally human, on the other. They must, therefore, be culturally determined, and so, as one would expect, they differ from social group to social group. They differ a great deal, and the differences go with language differences, even with dialect differences within languages, though they sometimes cut across linguistic boundaries. These aspects of human behaviour are bound therefore to interest language teachers, psychiatrists, anthropologists, speech therapists, and of course linguists and phoneticians too. Their systematic investigation started comparatively recently, though a desultory interest in them is of long standing. However, a great deal has been done during the last few years - particularly, interestingly enough, by, or in collaboration with, psychiatrists; and I would like here to summarize, sometimes critically, what has so far been accomplished in this area. Paralinguistic phenomena are non-linguistic elements in conversation. They occur alongside spoken language, interact with it, and produce together with it a total system of communication. They are not necessarily continuously simultaneous with spoken words. They may also be interspersed among them, or precede them, or follow them; but they are always integrated into a conversation considered as a complete linguistic inter-action. The study of paralinguistic behavior is part of the study of conversation: the conversational use of spoken language cannot be properly understood unless paralinguistic elements are taken into account. (The extract is from an article by David Abercrombie called 'Paralanguage'. The article was published on pages 55-59 of volume 3 of the journal British Journal of Disorders of Communication. This extract is from pages 55 to 56.) GESTURES A gesture is any action that sends a visual signal to an onlooker. To become a gesture, an act has to be seen by someone else and has to communicate some piece of information to them. It can do this either because the gesturer deliberately sets out to send a signal - as when he waves his hand - or it can do it only incidentally - as when he sneezes. The hand-wave is a Primary Gesture, because it has no other existence or function. It is a piece of communication from start to finish. The sneeze, by contrast, is a secondary, or Incidental Gesture. Its primary function is mechanical and is concerned with the sneezer's personal breathing problem. In its secondary role, however, it cannot help but transmit a message to his companions, warning them that he may have caught a cold.
【简答题】Passage 1 Write the thesis for the passage underneath: In 1995, the American Academy of Pediatrics declared that “advertising directed at children is inherently deceptive and exploits children under eight years of age.” The academy did not recommend a ban on such advertising because it seemed impractical and would infringe upon advertisers’ freedom of speech. Today the health risks faced by the nation’s children far outweigh the needs of its mass markers. Congress should immediately ban all advertisements aimed at children that promote foods high in fat and sugar. Thirty years ago Congress banned cigarette ads from radio and television as public health measure – and those ads were directed at adults. Smoking has declined ever since. A ban on advertising unhealthy foods to children would discourage eating habits that are not only hard to break, but potentially life-threatening. Moreover, such a ban would encourage the fast-food chains to alter the recipes for their children’s meals. Greatly reducing the fat content of McDonald’s Happy Meals, for example, could have an immediate effect on the diet of the nation’s kids. Every month more than 90 percent of the children in the United States eat at McDonald’s. Thesis: ________________________________________________________________________
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